Worship & Holiness

Isaiah saw a vision of YHWH enthroned in glory and he was commissioned with an unusual task for a prophet ­– that is to harden the hearts of the people. Judgement had been passed on Israel and Isaiah was charged with communicating the verdict to the people in a manner that would ensure they would not repent. After examining the various scholarly proposals for the hardening motif in Isaiah 6, I will offer my own proposal that the commission to harden the hearts is as a direct result of the idolatry of the people. I will go on to describe how the hardening motif functions in this passage and in the rest of Isaiah.

Hardening of Heart

The hardening motif in Isaiah is one of the most difficult topics in the Bible.[1] Would YHWH really want the hearts of his people so dulled that they could not turn and be healed? It appears to be contrary to how YHWH would usually require a prophet to warn the people so that they would repent and be saved.[2] Other passages in the Old Testament describe occasions where people become so set in their minds or purpose that they have hardness of heart.[3] These hardenings of heart could be as a result of their own actions (Ps. 95:8; Deut. 15:7; 2 Chr. 36:13) or because their hearts are hardened by YHWH (Deut. 2:30; Josh 11:20).[4] However, in this pericope YHWH commissions Isaiah to go and preach to the people in order that their hearts would be hardened to the point that they would be unable to repent. There have been a variety of proposals by scholars and earlier sources as to why this might be. I will now assess several of the proposals that have been made with regards to the hardening motif.

Scholarly Proposals

Early Christian Theologians: The MT has ‘Make the heart of this people dull,’[5] (v. 10), whereas the LXX has ‘the heart of this people became dull.’[6] The subtle difference between the original Hebrew and later Greek texts creates room for debate by softening the imperative ‘make’ to an indicative ‘became.’[7][8] Furthermore it suggests that YHWH merely foreknew what would happen rather than being the agent that determined what the people would do.[9] The LXX text is used by Luke when the passage is quoted in Acts 28:25-27. However Jerome[10] makes the case for the Hebrew reading by appealing to other examples in the LXX where the translators had accepted that YHWH had hardened someone’s heart (e.g. Exod 7:3).[11] Jerome concludes that it was ‘not the cruelty of God but his mercy, that one people should perish so that all might be saved.’[12] He argues that it was necessary for the Jews to not see in order that the whole world would perceive. Augustine of Hippo similarly struggled with this passage when it is quoted in John 12:39-40 in his Tractates on John. He concluded that the judgements of God are beyond our understanding (cf. Rom 11:33).[13] The Hebrew text must surely take precedence for the original meaning that YHWH instructed Isaiah to harden their hearts.

Retrospective readings: In the nineteenth-century G. A. Smith’s psychological approach to the pericope argued that a prophet would not start his ministry with such a negative message. Instead, Smith argues, at the end of his ministry having failed to deliver a positive reaction from Israel the prophet projected backwards the call to reflect the events that happened during Isaiah’s life[14]. From a redactional criticism approach, Steck, Barth and Clements believe chapter 6 to be a retrospective of the Syro-Ephraimite War.[15] Whereas Kaiser and Werner place it in the exilic or postexilic period, retrospectively applying the post-exile condition of Israel onto the eighth-century.[16] These retrospective readings, although may carry some merit, do not accept the text’s explicit chronology of v. 1.

Judgement on unjust communication: Most scholars would agree that vv.9 -13 pronounce judgement on Israel, although many offer differing reasons for the judgement. Uhlig attributes the hardening motif to a judgement on unjust communication. The people have perverted communication calling ‘evil good and good evil’ (5:20). Making a link between communication and YHWH’s glory, Uhlig explains that the people have defied his glory by their speech and deeds (3:8). This leads to Isaiah’s claim he is ‘a man of unclean lips’ from ‘a people of unclean lips’ (6:5) when he is confronted with the holiness of YHWH.[17] Drawing from the Psalms Uhlig argues that YHWH is the king who seeks to implement righteousness (Ps 11:7 and others).[18] Therefore the enthroned YHWH implements justice and righteousness by judging the unjust (5:1-7). There is an emphasis on communication within the pericope with the frequent use of words such as seeing and hearing that are connected to communication. However, this is only part of the picture and I believe that the breakdown in communication is perhaps a symptom of the real issue here rather than the cause.

Judgement on Israel’s covenant disloyalty: Isaiah catalogues the sin of Israel and Judah in the opening chapters. Israel has forgotten its master and despised YHWH (1:3-4). Justice and righteousness have been forsaken (1:21) and the cause of the poor and needy has been neglected (1:23). Brueggemann notes that Israel has rejected Torah, which is thereby a rejection of YHWH.[19] Israel and Judah have thus broken the covenant with YHWH, the Holy One of Israel, and as a consequence judgement has been passed (5:8-30).[20] Failure to keep the covenant would result in the curses of Mount Ebal (Deut 28:15-68). It is clear from vv. 11-13 that the judgement is final and complete. This proposal addresses the reasons for YHWH’s judgement on Israel, but it does not fully resolve the question as to why Isaiah is instructed to harden the hearts of the people.

Judgement on Israel’s idolatry: Building on the previous proposal about covenant disloyalty, Beale sees textual parallels between Isaiah 6:9-13 and Psalms 135 and 115 in relation to the description of the nations who worship idols. Specifically, the inability of idols made by human hands to see, hear and speak is paralleled in the judgement on Israel.[21] Indeed the Psalmist warns that those who worship idols will become like them (Ps 135:18). The burning of the stump of a terebinth or oak, symbolic of the sacred trees worshipped by idolaters (v.13), also mirrors the fate of idols (1:29-31).[22] For Beale (and Seitz[23]), Isaiah accuses Israel of becoming just like one of the idolatrous nations, rather than being set apart from the nations as YHWH had intended.[24] He argues that the pronouncement of judgment on Israel included the idea that ‘the idolaters had begun to resemble the nature of their idols.’[25] Israel was to become hardened of heart because they had become like the idols they worshipped. This proposal provides a convincing argument for the hardening motif, whilst acknowledging the wider covenant disloyalty of Israel.

My Proposal

Isaiah identifies the year his vision takes place with the year that King Uzziah died. This king of Judah had started his reign well and the land prospered under his rule  (2 Chr 26). However, as he grew stronger pride got the better of him and he was stricken with leprosy after he attempted to burn incense in the temple (2 Chr 26:19). He remained a leper for the rest of his life. Love comments how disappointing his fall from grace would be to the people.[26] So it is surely no coincidence that Isaiah sees a vision of true kingship when he sees YHWH enthroned in glory.[27] I agree with the proposal that Israel and Judah had failed to keep the covenant. In attempting to burn incense Uzziah demonstrated symbolically how Israel and Judah were not adhering to Torah. YHWH provided Isaiah with unequivocal testimony of what true kingship should be, and thus empathised that the nation was no longer the one it was meant to be. I also agree with Beale’s analysis of the role of idolatry in the judgement. YHWH commissioned Isaiah to harden the hearts of the people in order that they would become like the deaf, dumb and blind idols that they worshipped. In stark contrast the vision of Isaiah 6 is one of true worship of the true king of Israel enthroned in heaven and earth.

Hardening Theme in Context

Uhlig identifies the theme of hardening as one which runs throughout Isaiah and contributes to its unity.[28] The theme is not only about the hardness of hearts, but also the lack of seeing, hearing and understanding.[29] Hardening means that a person’s outlook is restricted in terms of what they hear, see and know. In the pericope there is the contrast between the seeing and understanding of Isaiah’s vision, and the seeing yet not perceiving of the people. In the first chapter Isaiah states that Israel does not know or understand (1:3). Understanding is a gift from the Holy Spirit that is given to the ‘root of Jesse’ (11:2) in order that the knowledge of YHWH shall fill the whole world (11:9). The reign of a future righteous king will mean that eyes and ears will be opened and hearts will again understand (32:1-4; 35:5). In Isaiah 1-39 the theme reflects both judgement and a future time of righteousness.[30]

The hardening theme continues in Deutero-Isaiah, now addressed to the exiles in Babylon. The exiles are called blind and deaf (42:18-25) and their hardness of heart is because they are far from righteousness (42:1-9).[31] When the exiles are to leave Babylon they must also leave behind their hardness (48:6-8, 20) because YHWH will do a new thing.[32] The servant passages (49ff) show how the servant will overcome the hardening (50:4-5) and offer hope of reversing the hardening of 6:10.[33] In Trito-Isaiah the hardening theme contributes to the question when will YHWH bring salvation and righteousness?[34] There is condemnation of the leaders (56:9-11) who are describes in similar terms to the leaders in Proto-Isaiah (cf 29:9-10).[35] Uhlig concludes that the exiles and those who remained in Judah have the opportunity to overcome the hardening following the communal confession of the sins of the nation.[36]

Conclusion

The subject of hardening of hearts is a complex theme in the Old Testament. The prophet Isaiah was commissioned to go to the people and preach so that their hearts would be hardened and they would not be able to repent and be saved from the coming judgement. Israel and Judah had broken covenant loyalty by becoming idolaters and failing to practice justice and righteousness. The judgement from YHWH was that they should become like the idols they worshipped. Isaiah was given a vision of true worship when he saw YHWH enthroned in heaven and earth. The hardening theme runs throughout Isaiah contributing to the unity of the book. Although at times the theme was a sign of judgement, it also pointed to a future hope of righteousness when hearts would no longer be hardened and people would see and know.

 

Bibliography

Beale, G. K. “Isaiah VI 9-13: A Retributive Taunt Against Idolatry.” Vetus Testamentum 41, no. 3(1991): 257-278.

Brueggemann, Walter. Isaiah 1-39. WBC. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1998.

Childs, Brevard S. Isaiah. OTL. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 2001.

Evans, C. A. “Isaiah 6:9-13 in the Context of Isaiah’s Theology.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 29(1986): 139-46.

Gowan, D. E. “Isaiah 6:1-8.” Interpretation 45, no. 2(1991): 172-76.

Love, J. P. “The Call of Isaiah.” Interpretation 11(1957): 282-96.

Seitz, Christopher R. Isaiah 1-39. Louisville, KY: John Know Press, 1989.

Uhlig, Torsten. “Too Hard to Understand? The Motif of Hardening in Isaiah.” Pages 62-83 in Interpreting Isaiah: Issues and Approaches. Edited by David G. Firth and H. G. M. Williamson. Nottingham: Inter-Varsity Press, 2009.

Watts, John D. W. “In God’s Heavenly Courtroom (6:1–13).” Pages 98-111 in Isaiah 1–33. By John D. W. Watts. WBC. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 2005.

Widyapranawa, S. H. The Lord is Savior: Faith in National Crisis. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1990.

Wilken, Robert Louis. “Isaiah 6.” Pages 61-89 in Isaiah: Interpreted by Early Christian and Medieval Commentators. Edited by Robert Louis Wilken, Angela Christman and Michael J. Hollerich. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2007.

 

[1] Brevard S. Childs, Isaiah (OTL. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 2001), 56.

[2] Walter Brueggemann, Isaiah 1-39 (WBC. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1998), 61.

[3] Torsten Uhlig, “Too Hard to Understand? The Motif of Hardening in Isaiah,” in Interpreting Isaiah: Issues and Approaches (ed. David G. Firth and H. G. M. Williamson; Nottingham: Inter-Varsity Press, 2009), 63.

[4] Uhlig, “Too Hard to Understand? The Motif of Hardening in Isaiah,” 63.

[5] Hebrew hǎš·mēn means fat.

[6] John D. W. Watts, “In God’s Heavenly Courtroom (6:1–13),” in Isaiah 1–33 (WBC. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 2005), 109.

[7] Robert Louis Wilken, “Isaiah 6,” in Isaiah: Interpreted by Early Christian and Medieval Commentators (ed. Robert Louis Wilken, Angela Christman and Michael J. Hollerich; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2007), 62.

[8] Christopher R. Seitz, Isaiah 1-39 (Louisville, KY: John Know Press, 1989), 55.

[9] Wilken, “Isaiah 6,” 62.

[10] Jerome was a fourth-century theologian and Bible translator.

[11] Wilken, “Isaiah 6,” 85.

[12] Wilken, “Isaiah 6,” 86.

[13] Wilken, “Isaiah 6,” 62.

[14] Childs, Isaiah, 53.

[15] Childs, Isaiah, 53.

[16] Childs, Isaiah, 54.

[17] Uhlig, “Too Hard to Understand? The Motif of Hardening in Isaiah,” 66.

[18] Uhlig, “Too Hard to Understand? The Motif of Hardening in Isaiah,” 66.

[19] Brueggemann, Isaiah 1-39, 55.

[20] Childs, Isaiah, 57.

[21] G. K. Beale, “Isaiah VI 9-13: A Retributive Taunt Against Idolatry,” Vetus Testamentum 41 (1991), 258.

[22] Beale, “Isaiah VI 9-13,” 259.

[23] Seitz, Isaiah 1-39, 58.

[24] Beale, “Isaiah VI 9-13,” 270.

[25] Beale, “Isaiah VI 9-13,” 272.

[26] J. P. Love, “The Call of Isaiah,” Interpretation 11 (1957), 283.

[27] S. H. Widyapranawa, The Lord is Savior: Faith in National Crisis (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1990), 31.

[28] Uhlig, “Too Hard to Understand? The Motif of Hardening in Isaiah,” 70.

[29] Uhlig, “Too Hard to Understand? The Motif of Hardening in Isaiah,” 65.

[30] Uhlig, “Too Hard to Understand? The Motif of Hardening in Isaiah,” 71.

[31] Uhlig, “Too Hard to Understand? The Motif of Hardening in Isaiah,” 72.

[32] Uhlig, “Too Hard to Understand? The Motif of Hardening in Isaiah,” 73.

[33] Uhlig, “Too Hard to Understand? The Motif of Hardening in Isaiah,” 74.

[34] Uhlig, “Too Hard to Understand? The Motif of Hardening in Isaiah,” 77.

[35] Uhlig, “Too Hard to Understand? The Motif of Hardening in Isaiah,” 77.

[36] Uhlig, “Too Hard to Understand? The Motif of Hardening in Isaiah,” 78.